The Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI)

The RTPI champions the power of planning to create prosperous places and vibrant communities. We have over 27,000 members in the private, public, academic and voluntary sectors. Using our expertise and research we bring evidence and thought leadership to shape planning policies and thinking, putting the profession at the heart of society's big debates. We set the standards of planning education and professional behaviour that give our members, wherever they work in the world, a unique ability to meet complex economic, social and environmental challenges. We are the only body in the United Kingdom that confers Chartered status to planners, the highest professional qualification, sought after by employers in both private and public sectors.

Report authors

This report was commissioned by the RTPI. It was authored by the Futureproof New Towns project team, which comprised:

• Professor John Sturzaker FRTPI, University of Hertfordshire;
• Professor Alex Lord, University of Liverpool;
• Dr Phil O’Brien, University of Glasgow;
• Associate Professor Susan Parham MRTPI, University of Hertfordshire; and
• Ellie Pritchard, University of Hertfordshire.

The RTPI Practice and Research and International teams provided input and edited the report. For correspondence please contact research@rtpi.org.uk.

Contents

Foreword and executive summary

1. Introduction
2. Case study: Almere
3. Case study: Freiburg
4. Case study: The Paris region
5. Case study: Chandigarh
6. Case study: Daybreak
7. Case study: Curitiba
8. Synthesis of cross-cutting findings from case studies
9. Conclusions and recommendations for policy makers

Foreword and executive summary

The Royal Town Planning Institute’s Planning is Global series

Planning is Global is a series of internationally focussed publications from the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI). The purpose of this series is to highlight the role of planning and the profession worldwide. It promotes the value of planning internationally as a lever to create healthy, socially inclusive, economically and environmentally sustainable places in alignment with key international agreements on sustainable development and climate change.

This report, Futureproof New Towns: Planning is Global 4 – How to build a new generation of flexible and adaptable new settlements around the world, is the latest edition of this series, and part of the RTPI’s Futureproof New Towns research project. It explores of the development of new towns around the world to inform fresh thinking on new settlements, with a focus on planning for adaptability and flexibility over time.

This international focus reflects the RTPI’s global role in promoting planning knowledge and practice through the production of original research. It provides valuable new evidence that demonstrates the key role of planning in addressing rapid urbanisation, global development, and the climate and biodiversity emergencies, and in so doing advance fair, sustainable and inclusive outcomes for all - as set out in the Institute’s International Strategy.

This research also equips our members to deliver positive impact and understand the global implications of their work for climate change and global sustainable development.

Planning is Global is part of our mission to establish planning as a positive force for sustainable development. It is also part of our commitment to developing planning skills and evidence and make them available globally, particularly where planning capacity is limited.

Futureproof New Towns in an international context

Urbanisation continues at pace in many regions of the world, including South America, Africa, the Middle East and parts of Asia, and new settlements are being planned and built to respond to the needs of existing and new communities. This report brings new evidence and learning that informs a set of recommendations relevant in this international context.

The research shows that embedding good planning principles and practice at the inception of new development is critical for the long-term adaptability and flexibility of new communities. Drawing from the examples of six existing new settlements, the report focuses on what we can learn from this international evidence and its transferability to other contexts.

This report – lessons in flexibility and adaptability from around the world

This report sits alongside Futureproof New Towns: International lessons on how to build flexible and adaptable new towns in England, which makes high-level recommendations to planners and policy makers in England on how to ensure that the new generation of new towns proposed by the UK Government and New Towns Taskforce are able to meet the changing needs of their residents over time.

This report presents six case studies of new towns from around the world. Each example has been considered through the lens of adaptability and flexibility. The researchers looked at how these settlements have evolved over time, and what factors and decisions have enabled them to successfully respond to new challenges or opportunities.  

Those case studies - Almere in the Netherlands, Freiburg in Germany, the Paris region in France, Chandigarh in India, Daybreak in Utah (USA), and Curitiba in Brazil - provide a rich repository of lessons, highlighting that planners and planning are key to delivering successful, flexible and adaptable new communities.

These cases provide powerful narratives and learning in their own rights, and can be read as standalone contributions.

Key findings

The findings of this report emphasise that planning can have a large scale, positive impact by enabling sustainable patterns of development. New towns, whether they are standalone new settlements, urban extensions, or regeneration projects within existing settlements, can be successful in a range of contexts, particularly if lessons are learned from past and contemporary experiences.

Particularly significant is the need for consistency in planning policy. This means recognising the importance of setting the planning trajectory but allowing for flexibility within policy for places to respond to changing circumstances. The case studies make clear that masterplanning can enable this by offering a clear but flexible vision for sustainable and resilient new places.

The research highlight the benefits of strong community involvement from the onset and that new communities need a diverse mix of housing tenures and land uses to thrive overtime.  It provides further evidence on the crucial role of land assembly and land value capture, and the importance of linking land-use and transport planning.

The research also shows that integrating nature-based solutions into planned new settlements has benefits across multiple domains, from climate adaptation to health and wellbeing and is a key element to adaptability and flexibility overtime

The report concludes with eight recommendations for planning policy makers globally to futureproof new towns:

1. Ensure that planning policy is consistent over time;
2. Harness the path shaping powers of planning, but avoid path dependency;
3. Go beyond the plan – the importance of ‘urban management’ and setting up partnerships for delivery;
4. Transport and land use planning must be integrated;
5. Mixed land uses and tenures lead to better outcomes, and planning for community-led models of development can build support;
6. Growth management must accommodate different urbanisation pressures and provide space for adaptation;
7. Put placemaking at the heart of planning approaches - and learn from time-tested traditional place design principles; and
8. Implement Nature-based Solutions to work with nature.

Conclusion

Overall, this report brings new evidence that demonstrate the positive impact of planning. It also identifies approaches and instruments that can play a critical role in the long-term adaptability and flexibility of new settlements.

The six very different international case studies demonstrate the different ways in which new settlements and towns around the world can be futureproofed to adapt to changing conditions and remain sustainable. They point to global lessons that can be applied locally.

Well-planned new settlements can contribute to addressing the global shortage of adequate housing, whilst creating socially, economically and environmentally sustainable places that are homes to flourishing communities.

Béatrice Crabb MRTPI, International Manager.

1. Introduction

1.1 Planning is Global

Planning is Global is a series of internationally focussed publications from the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI). The purpose of this series is to highlight the role of planning and the profession worldwide. It promotes the value of planning as a lever to create healthy, socially inclusive, economically and environmentally sustainable places in alignment with key international agreements on sustainable development and climate change.

There is a worldwide recognition of the need for urgent action to address some of the global challenges that humanity is facing, such as rapid urbanisation, unsustainable patterns of development, growing inequalities, humanitarian crises[1], the climate and biodiversity emergencies, and a shortage of good quality new homes built in the right places[2]. Indeed, the United Nations Human Settlements Programme estimates that between 1.6 billion and 3 billion people lack adequate housing[3]. The delivery of well-planned places and high-quality, sustainable, development must be central to our collective response.

As global urbanisation continues apace, and major new settlements are being planned and built in many regions of the world, including South America, Africa, the middle east and parts of Asia, this report brings evidence, learning and a set of recommendations that can inform global practice and policy for future new towns and settlements[*]. We are at a critical juncture: how these new towns are planned and developed has significant consequences both their future residents and for the future of our planet.

1.2 This report and Futureproof New Towns – lessons on flexibility and adaptability from new towns around the world

This report, Futureproof New Towns - Planning is Global 4: How to build a new generation of flexible and adaptable new settlements around the world, is the latest edition of the RTPI’s Planning is Global series.

As its name suggests, it is part of the RTPI’s Futureproof New Towns research project. Futureproof New Towns examines case studies of new towns around the world for lessons and recommendations on how they can be planned to be sustainable, resilient, flexible, adaptable and generally able to meet their citizens’ changing needs over time. This is a critical challenge. For all that the post-World War Two new towns improved living standards and provided housing and growth, there remains a widespread perception that their plans were ‘frozen in time’ – embedding contemporary assumptions about how their residents would live within their urban fabric. This has made it harder for these places to adapt to changing ways of working, moving around, or relaxing.

This report sits alongside an accompanying Futureproof New Towns report, Futureproof New Towns: International lessons on how to build flexible and adaptable new towns in England. It makes practical recommendations for planners and policy makers in England as they respond to the UK Government’s ambition to build a new generation of new towns[4].

1.3 The benefits of planning new towns

New communities with a distinct identity have particular benefits in addressing societies’ challenges. They can be planned strategically, with infrastructure provided from the start, alongside new housing and jobs provision. Public space and green or blue infrastructure can be woven into the design. From the outset, a mixed land use approach can be implemented to make communities more resilient and adaptable to future challenges including climate change.

A recognition of the need for strong intervention and the benefits of new communities has been a feature of planning as it has developed as a profession and a discipline from the nineteenth century onwards. Planned town examples such as Ebenezer Howard’s proposals for garden cities are often cited as inspiring developments elsewhere. Yet Howard himself drew on a range of international experience, including from the USA, Russia and Australia[5].

New towns have been instituted in many places worldwide[6], with mixed successes[7]. Today, rapid urbanisation is a feature in many regions of the world, where existing towns and cities are expanding in response to the mass movement of people in pursuit of better lives[8], and to escape conflicts or the impact of climate change. Cities in Africa and Asia are the fastest growing[9], so a planned response to meet communities’ needs in those places is particularly important[10].  New developments in countries like India and Brazil, included in our case studies, offer very pertinent learning to inform these contexts. They also offer valuable learnings to inform global policy and practice.

1.4 Learning from international new town case studies

Those responsible for delivering new communities need to be able to avoid the mistakes of the past and learn from what has been done elsewhere. To help planners around the world, we have looked in-depth at six case studies of new communities at different stages of their evolution and adaption to changing circumstances.

Our six case studies are:

1. Almere (Netherlands);
2. Freiburg (Germany);
3. The Paris region (France);
4. Chandigarh (India);
5. Daybreak (USA); and
6. Curitiba (Brazil).

1.5 Why we chose these case studies

The case studies vary in size and scope so that a wide range of circumstances can be explored to provide evidence to inform policy and practice. They also include new towns that are extensions to existing cities and the large-scale redevelopment of inner urban areas to make ‘new’ places. These cases reflect the reality that in many places new towns are not traditional standalone settlements in ‘greenfield’ locations - indeed, the majority of the ‘new towns’ recently proposed by the UK’s Government’s New Towns Taskforce are actually pre-existing settlements[11].

We also selected case studies that reflect some of the broad diversity in experience of new settlements from around the world. As such, they represent different stages in the development cycle of places. Some are newer and others are more well established. Some are being planned, designed and built from the ground up. Some are making minor changes to their planning and placemaking. Others are being altered in substantial ways.

The cases range from more typical post war ‘modernist’ new towns (Paris region and Chandigarh) to radical re-shaping of an existing, rapidly growth city (Curitiba). They include modern new towns of varying scales, on greenfield, reclaimed, and brownfield land in or on the edge of cities (Freiburg, Almere and Daybreak).

Some of the places focus on nature and ecology (Freiburg) and others follow masterplanning guidelines that support active travel (Daybreak). There is coverage of place renewal in some postwar ‘modernist’ new towns redesigned along more traditional placemaking lines (Val d’Europe and Le Plessis-Robinson in the Paris region).

The cases are of broad relevance to existing and future new settlements. While they cover a range of scales and different planning and placemaking approaches, we focus on drawing out practical  lessons on adaptability and flexibility for other new towns. We recognise that there are many other interesting case studies, and our selection of these six cases should not be taken as endorsement of the approach to planning used in each case.

1.6 A thematic approach to research

The diversity of these case studies means that it was very important, in order to be able to draw meaningful conclusions from our research, that we used a common set of themes to analyse them. Not all the following themes are as relevant for each case study, but all are explored in relation to several places. Our themes are:

New towns as sites of urban experimentation

For this theme we explored new towns as testbeds for design innovation and planning ideologies. We assessed the successes and consequences of experimental layouts, housing models, and mobility systems. We further examined how resilient the experiments had been over the longer-term, and sought to identify lessons from these experiments to inform current design practice and policymaking.

The significance of social and cultural lived experience

Here we considered how residents experience and adapt to new towns, recognising how central the human factor is to successful placemaking. This included investigating how community identity and belonging is formed in new towns, and how resident perspectives critique or support dominant narratives associated with the new town. Specific aspects of lived experience we reflected upon including heritage conservation in the new town and the informal use of space, local adaptations, and evolution of public spaces.

New towns as political and ideological projects

New towns reflect the political and ideological contexts of their times (for example the post-war utopianism of the UK), so we sought to analyse the political motivations behind new town development, how new towns reflect the pursuit of creating ‘ideal spaces’, and how these imaginations shift through time. Included in this theme are factors such as the role of the state versus the private sector in new town delivery, how political shifts play out in the urban environment or affect planning outcomes, and how the ideological roots of new towns impact their future.

The challenges and the limitations of modernist planning

This theme is particularly relevant for new towns developed during the middle years of the twentieth century, including the UK post-war new towns. Here we sought to identify spatial or design features grounded in modernist planning ideals, explore mismatches between planned use and present day use, and to identify resistance or reinterpretation of planned environments by local communities. Through these reflections we were able to consider how well new towns are able to adapt - something central to the next and final theme.

Functionality, adaptability, and the future of new towns

To allow us to move from the general to the specific, we have investigated how well new towns function economically, socially, and ecologically in the long-term and assessed their connectivity and integration with surrounding regions (for example in relation to jobs, transport and services). We have also considered their capacity for renewal, retrofitting and redesign, and how adaptable they are to rapid climate, social, or technological, change.

To do this we have examined governance and maintenance models of new towns and examined whether towns remain aligned with their original purpose or have been redefined by residents. We have considered how sustainability in aspects such as housing, energy systems and food systems is acting as a foundation for long-term viability, and how successful any masterplanning approach has been.

1.7 How we carried out the research

Using these themes, we undertook interviews and site visits and drew extensively on secondary data (such as reports and academic publications which discuss the case study new towns)[12]. Detailed, free-standing, reports on the case studies can be found in the following chapters.

We then look across the cases for cross-cutting findings. These ‘lessons’ relate to aspects of planning found in two or more case studies. There is a strong focus on findings about flexibility and adaptability.

In the final chapter, this report offers eight recommendations for planning policy-makers globally to futureproof new towns.

8. Synthesis of cross-cutting findings from case studies

Lessons from across the case studies

In this section we synthesise important learning points (‘lessons’) which either occur in more than one case study, or emerge through comparison between two or more cases.

These cross-cutting lessons, and those highlighted separately in relation to each case study, lead to the eight over-arching and high-level recommendations, set out in chapter 9.

9. Conclusions and recommendations for policy makers

It is possible to develop new towns that are commercially viable, politically supported, popular with residents, successful in the housing market, and highly liveable, sustainable and attractive.

In order for such places to be the norm, some high-level recommendations emerge from the case studies and above lessons for policy-makers and planners. International contexts vary in their planning systems, land ownership models, climate and culture - these recommendations focus upon what planners and others are trying to achieve, as much as the details of how they did it.

9.9 References

[*] The RTPI, through its international work, promotes the worldwide value of planning and its role in shaping a sustainable future and addressing those global challenges.

This research delivers on the RTPI International Strategy. The Strategy is clear that one of the RTPI’s priorities is to support the production and dissemination of critical, original and sound planning knowledge to inform practice and policy internationally.

Planning is Global is part of our commitment to developing planning skills and evidence and make them available globally, particularly where planning capacity is limited.

[1] United Nations Development Programme, ‘UNDP Strategic Plan 2026-2029’, Executive Board of the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Population Fund and the United Nations Office for Project Services, 27 June 2025 [accessed 08/11/2025]

[2] UN-Habitat, ‘The first session of the open-ended Intergovernmental Expert Working Group on Adequate Housing for All’, United Nations, 2024 [accessed 16/07/2025]

[3] UN-Habitat, ‘State efforts to progressively realize adequate housing for all’, United Nations, 2024 [accessed 30/07/2025]

[4] New Towns Taskforce, ‘Report to government’, Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government, 28 September 2025 [accessed 06/10/2025]

[5] Ebenezer Howard, Peter Hall, Dennis Hardy and Colin Ward, To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. Original Edition with Commentary (Routledge, 2003)

[6] Richard Peiser and Ann Forsyth, New towns for the twenty-first century: A guide to planned communities worldwide (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021)

[7] Sarah, Moser, Laurence Côté-Roy, ‘Reflections on researching new cities underway in the Global South’. Journal of Urban Affairs, 46.9 (2024), pp.1793-1809.

[8] Garth Myers, ‘Urbanisation in the global south’, in Urban ecology in the global south, ed. by Charlie M. Shackleton, Sarel S. Cilliers, Elandrie Davoren and Marié J. du Toit (Springer International Publishing, 2021), pp. 27-49.

[9] Debolina Kundu and Arvind Kumar Pandey, ‘World urbanisation: trends and patterns’, in Developing national urban policies: Ways forward to green and smart cities, ed. by Debolina Kundu, Remy Sietchiping and Michael Kinyanjui (Springer Nature Singapore, 2020), pp.13-49.

[10] Lauren Andres, Hakeem Bakare, John R. Bryson, Winnie Khaemba, Lorena Melgaço and George R. Mwaniki. ‘Planning, temporary urbanism and citizen-led alternative-substitute place-making in the Global South’, Regional Studies, 55.1 (2021), pp. 29-39.

[11] New Towns Taskforce, ‘Report to government’, Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government, 28 September 2025 [accessed 06/10/2025]

[12] For example: Richard B. Peiser and Ann Forsyth (eds.), New Towns for the Twenty-First Century - A Guide to Planned Communities Worldwide, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press (2021).

[13] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[14] Almere Municipality, 'About Almere' [accessed 08/11/2025]

[15] Nobelhorst, ‘The Village of Almere’ [accessed 08/11/2025]

[16] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[17] Anke Brons, Peter Oosterveer and Sigrid Wertheim-Heck, ‘In- and exclusion in urban food governance: exploring networks and power in the city of Almere’, Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning, 24-6 (2022), pp. 777–793.

[18] Jing Zhou, ‘Urban Vitality in Dutch and Chinese New Towns: A comparative study between Almere and Tongzhou’, TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism department, (2012), pp. 15-385.

[19] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[20] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[21] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[22] Samuel Agyekum and Harrison Esam Awuh, ‘Striving for just sustainabilities in urban foodscape planning: the case of Almere city in the Netherlands’, Local Environment, 29.8 (2024), pp.1063-1084.

[23] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[24] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[25] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[26] Samuel Agyekum and Harrison Esam Awuh, ‘Striving for just sustainabilities in urban foodscape planning: the case of Almere city in the Netherlands’, Local Environment, 29.8 (2024), pp.1063-1084.

[27] Netherlands, National Urban Policy Database, Urban Policy Platform, Facilitated by UN-Habitat [accessed 08/11/2025]

[28] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[29] Jan Eelco Jansma and Sigrid C.O. Wertheim-Heck, ‘Thoughts for urban food: A social practice perspective on urban planning for agriculture in Almere, the Netherlands’, Landscape and Urban Planning, 206 (2021), pp. 2-13.

[30] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[31] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[32] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[33] Christian Jantzen and Mikael Vetner, ‘Re-inventing Città Ideale: Designing Urban Experiences in Almere’, paper delivered at conference, Aalborg University, (2008), pp. 1-24.

[34] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[35] Daniël M. Bossuyt, ‘The value of self-build: understanding the aspirations and strategies of owner-builders in the Homeruskwartier, Almere’, Housing Studies, 36.5, (2020), pp. 696-713.

[36] Daniël M. Bossuyt, ‘The value of self-build: understanding the aspirations and strategies of owner-builders in the Homeruskwartier, Almere’, Housing Studies, 36.5, (2020), pp. 696-713.

[37] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[38] Daniël M. Bossuyt, ‘The value of self-build: understanding the aspirations and strategies of owner-builders in the Homeruskwartier, Almere’, Housing Studies, 36.5, (2020), pp. 696-713.

[39] Daniël M. Bossuyt, ‘The value of self-build: understanding the aspirations and strategies of owner-builders in the Homeruskwartier, Almere’, Housing Studies, 36.5, (2020), pp. 696-713.

[40] Daniël M. Bossuyt, ‘The value of self-build: understanding the aspirations and strategies of owner-builders in the Homeruskwartier, Almere’, Housing Studies, 36.5, (2020), pp. 696-713.

[41] Ayşe Burcu Kısacık, ‘Level of participation in land development: The case of Almere, Netherlands’, Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning, 5. Special Issue (2024): 101-117

[42] Brons, Oosterveer and Wertheim-Heck, ‘In- and exclusion in urban food governance: exploring networks and power in the city of Almere’.

[43] Han J. A. Wezenaar, ‘Leisure land-use planning and sustainability in the new town of Almere, The Netherlands’, Tourism Geographies, (Routledge, 1999), pp. 460-476.

[44] Han J. A. Wezenaar, ‘Leisure land-use planning and sustainability in the new town of Almere, The Netherlands’, Tourism Geographies, (Routledge, 1999), pp. 460-476.

[45] Christian Jantzen and Mikael Vetner, ‘Re-inventing Città Ideale: Designing Urban Experiences in Almere’, paper delivered at conference, Aalborg University, (2008), pp. 1-24.

[46] Christian Jantzen and Mikael Vetner, ‘Re-inventing Città Ideale: Designing Urban Experiences in Almere’, paper delivered at conference, Aalborg University, (2008), pp. 1-24.

[47] Anna Growe and Tim Freytag, ‘Image and implementation of sustainable urban development: Showcase projects and other projects in Freiburg, Heidelberg and Tübingen, Germany’, Raumforschung und Raumordnung Spatial Research and Planning, 77.5 (2019), pp. 457–474.

[48] Sebastian Dembski and Phil O’Brien, ‘Zoning in or zoning out? Lessons from Europe’, in Planning in a Failing State – Reforming Spatial Governance in England, ed. by Olivier Sykes and John Sturzaker (Policy Press, 2024), pp. 103-119.

[49] See for example Gary J. Coates, ‘The Sustainable Urban District of Vauban In Freiburg, Germany’, International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics, 8.4 (2013), pp. 265-286 [accessed 07/08/2025]

[50] David Thorpe, ‘The Baugruppen model of development’, theoneplanetlife.com, 2020 [accessed 07/08/2025]

[51] Stadtplanungsamt Frankfurt am Main, ‘Urban Development Measures’,  Stadtplanungsamt Frankfurt am Main, 2025 accessed 27/08/2025]

[52] For more on land value capture in Germany, see Tony Crook, ‘Local authority land acquisition in Germany and the Netherlands: are there lessons for Scotland?’, Scottish Land Commission (2018).

[53] Freiburg City Council, ‘Das Fest Für Alle’, 2025 [accessed 07/08/2025]

[54] Ralph Buehler and John Pucher, ‘Sustainable Transport in Freiburg: Lessons from Germany's Environmental Capital’, International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 5:1 (2011), pp. 43-70.

[55] Urban Design Lab, ‘Vauban Eco District Freiburg as a Model for Sustainable Urban Regeneration’,  24 April 2025 accessed 08/11/2025]

[56] Anoush Darabi, ‘What one of the world's greenest neighbourhoods looks like’, Apolitical, 2018 [accessed 07/08/2025]

[57] Freiburg, ‘The feast for everyone on 13. July’, [accessed 08/11/2025]

[58] James M. Rubenstein, ‘The French new towns’, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019).

[59] Yonah Freemark, Justin Steil and Kathleen Thelen, ‘Varieties of urbanism: A comparative view of inequality and the dual dimensions of metropolitan fragmentation’. Politics & Society, 48:2 (2020), pp. 235-274.

[60] John N. Tuppen, ‘The development of French new towns: an assessment of progress’. Urban studies, 20:1 (1983), p.11-30.

[61] Didier Desponds and Elizabeth Auclair, ‘The new towns around Paris 40 years later: New dynamic centralities or suburbs facing risk of marginalisation?’, Urban Studies, 54.4 (2017), pp. 862-877.

[62] Desponds and Auclair, ‘The new towns around Paris 40 years later: New dynamic centralities or suburbs facing risk of marginalisation?’

[63] Antoine Haumont and Isabelle Chesneau, ‘La mixité sociale programmée dans les villes nouvelles. Les exemples de Cergy-Pontoise et de Marne-la-Vallée’. Les Annales de la recherche urbaine, 98 (2005), pp. 83-87.

[64] Didier Desponds and Elizabeth Auclair, ‘The new towns around Paris 40 years later: New dynamic centralities or suburbs facing risk of marginalisation?’, Urban Studies, 54.4 (2017), pp. 862-877.

[65] Didier Desponds and Elizabeth Auclair, ‘The new towns around Paris 40 years later: New dynamic centralities or suburbs facing risk of marginalisation?’, Urban Studies, 54.4 (2017), pp. 862-877.

[66] James M. Rubenstein, ‘The French new towns’, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019).

[67] Yonah Freemark, Justin Steil and Kathleen Thelen, ‘Varieties of urbanism: A comparative view of inequality and the dual dimensions of metropolitan fragmentation’. Politics & Society, 48:2 (2020), pp. 235-274.

[68] Métropole du Grand Paris  [accessed on 08/11/2025]

[69] Yonah Freemark, Justin Steil and Kathleen Thelen, ‘Varieties of urbanism: A comparative view of inequality and the dual dimensions of metropolitan fragmentation’. Politics & Society, 48:2 (2020), pp. 235-274.

[70] Yonah Freemark, Justin Steil and Kathleen Thelen, ‘Varieties of urbanism: A comparative view of inequality and the dual dimensions of metropolitan fragmentation’. Politics & Society, 48:2 (2020), pp. 235-274.

[71] Emeric Lambert, ‘Faire la ville suburbaine. Le projet Sénart’. Articulo-Journal of Urban Research, 5 (2009). [accessed 09/11/2025]

[72] John N. Tuppen, ‘The development of French new towns: an assessment of progress’. Urban studies, 20:1 (1983), p.11-30.

[73] James M. Rubenstein, ‘The French new towns’, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019).

[74] James M. Rubenstein, ‘The French new towns’, (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2019).

[75] Frédéric Pousin and Nathalie Roseau, ‘Behind the metropolis: understanding Grand Paris through the history of its regional plans’. Planning Perspectives, 39.2 (2023), pp. 371-403.

[76] Yonah Freemark, Justin Steil and Kathleen Thelen, ‘Varieties of urbanism: A comparative view of inequality and the dual dimensions of metropolitan fragmentation’. Politics & Society, 48:2 (2020), pp. 235-274.

[77] Yonah Freemark, Justin Steil and Kathleen Thelen, ‘Varieties of urbanism: A comparative view of inequality and the dual dimensions of metropolitan fragmentation’. Politics & Society, 48:2 (2020), pp. 235-274.

[78] Anton Salov and Elena Semerikova, ‘Transportation and urban spatial structure: Evidence from Paris’, Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 51.6 (2024), pp. 1248-1273.

[79] Anton Salov and Elena Semerikova, ‘Transportation and urban spatial structure: Evidence from Paris’, Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 51.6 (2024), pp. 1248-1273.

[80] Anton Salov and Elena Semerikova, ‘Transportation and urban spatial structure: Evidence from Paris’, Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 51.6 (2024), pp. 1248-1273.

[81] Caroline Gallez, ‘Territorial Development Contracts in the ‘Grand Paris’ project: towards a negotiated networked development’. Town Planning Review, 85:2 (2014), pp. 273-286.

[82] Paraphrased from David Fée, Bob Colenutt and Sabine Coady Schäbitz, ‘Lessons from British and French New Towns: Paradise Lost?.’ in Lessons from British and French New Towns: Paradise Lost?, ed. by David Fée, Bob Colenutt and Sabine Coady Schäbitz (Emerald Publishing Limited, 2020), pp. 1-15.

[83] Didier Desponds and Elizabeth Auclair, ‘The new towns around Paris 40 years later: New dynamic centralities or suburbs facing risk of marginalisation?’, Urban Studies, 54.4 (2017), pp. 862-877.

[84] David Fée, Bob Colenutt and Sabine Coady Schäbitz, ‘Lessons from British and French New Towns: Paradise Lost?.’ in Lessons from British and French New Towns: Paradise Lost?, ed. by David Fée, Bob Colenutt and Sabine Coady Schäbitz (Emerald Publishing Limited, 2020), pp. 1-15.

[85] Catherine Blain, ‘A Tangible Utopia: The Genesis of Built Experiments in French New Towns’, in Lessons from British and French New Towns: Paradise Lost?, ed. by David Fée, Bob Colenutt and Sabine Coady Schäbitz (Emerald Publishing Limited, 2020), pp. 216-232.

[86] Sabine Coady Schäbitz, ‘A Controversial Heritage: New Towns and the Problematic Legacy of Modernism’, in Lessons from British and French New Towns: Paradise Lost?, ed. by David Fée, Bob Colenutt and Sabine Coady Schäbitz (Emerald Publishing Limited, 2020), pp. 233-254

[87] Stéphanie Vermeersch, Amélie Flamand, Isabelle Chesneau and Véronique Biau, ‘The socio-urban project of new cities: experimentation and obsolescence’, Research report, VN-2003-VER, Ministère de la culture et de la communication / Bureau de la recherche architecturale et urbaine (BRAU); Ecole nationale supérieure d’architecture Paris Val-de-Seine; Laboratoire des organisations urbaines: Espaces, Sociétés, Temporalités (LOUEST). (2005). hal-01824933

[88] Camille Le Bivic and Romain Melot, ‘Scheduling urbanization in rural municipalities: Local practices in land-use planning on the fringes of the Paris region’. Land Use Policy, 99 (2020), p.105040.

[89] Antoine Haumont and Isabelle Chesneau, ‘La mixité sociale programmée dans les villes nouvelles. Les exemples de Cergy-Pontoise et de Marne-la-Vallée’. Les Annales de la recherche urbaine, 98 (2005), pp. 83-87.

[90] Quentin Ramond, ‘The politics of social mix in the Paris metropolitan area’. Housing studies, 39.2 (2022), pp. 419-437.

[91] Stéphanie Vermeersch, Amélie Flamand, Isabelle Chesneau and Véronique Biau, ‘The socio-urban project of new cities: experimentation and obsolescence’, Research report, VN-2003-VER, Ministère de la culture et de la communication / Bureau de la recherche architecturale et urbaine (BRAU); Ecole nationale supérieure d’architecture Paris Val-de-Seine; Laboratoire des organisations urbaines: Espaces, Sociétés, Temporalités (LOUEST). (2005). hal-01824933

[92] Antoine Haumont and Isabelle Chesneau, ‘La mixité sociale programmée dans les villes nouvelles. Les exemples de Cergy-Pontoise et de Marne-la-Vallée’. Les Annales de la recherche urbaine, 98 (2005), pp. 83-87.

[93] Stéphanie Vermeersch, Amélie Flamand, Isabelle Chesneau and Véronique Biau, ‘The socio-urban project of new cities: experimentation and obsolescence’, Research report, VN-2003-VER, Ministère de la culture et de la communication / Bureau de la recherche architecturale et urbaine (BRAU); Ecole nationale supérieure d’architecture Paris Val-de-Seine; Laboratoire des organisations urbaines: Espaces, Sociétés, Temporalités (LOUEST). (2005). hal-01824933

[94] Elżbieta Muszyńska and Elżbieta Tomaszewska-Taton, ‘Val d’Europe–ville du XXI siècle’. MAZOWSZE Studia Regionalne, 30 (2019), pp. 11-32.

[95] Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre, ‘Val d’Europe: A pioneering turn to ‘experience’ planning?’. European Urban and Regional Studies, 20:4 (2012), pp. 435-446.

[96] Elżbieta Muszyńska and Elżbieta Tomaszewska-Taton, ‘Val d’Europe–ville du XXI siècle’. MAZOWSZE Studia Regionalne, 30 (2019), pp. 11-32.

[97] Elżbieta Muszyńska and Elżbieta Tomaszewska-Taton, ‘Val d’Europe–ville du XXI siècle’. MAZOWSZE Studia Regionalne, 30 (2019), pp. 11-32., citing Borezée, 2010.

[98] Jean-François Ruault, ‘Beyond tourism-based economic development: city-regions and transient custom’, Regional Studies, 52:8 (2018), p.1124. 

[99] Valérie Foucher-Dufoix and Vanessa Fernandez, ‘Quelle discordance des temps fabriquons-nous? Le succès des styles «néo» architecturaux, décors et projet de société dans le Grand Paris’. Textes et contextes, 17 :1 (2022).

[100] Valérie Foucher-Dufoix and Vanessa Fernandez, ‘Quelle discordance des temps fabriquons-nous? Le succès des styles «néo» architecturaux, décors et projet de société dans le Grand Paris’. Textes et contextes, 17 :1 (2022).

[101] Ganeshwari Singh, Simrit Kahlon and Vishwa Bandhu Singh Chandel, ‘Political Discourse and the Planned City: Nehru’s Projection and Appropriation of Chandigarh, the Capital of Punjab’, Annals of the American Association of Geographers (2019), p1226.

[102] Peter Fitting, ‘Urban Planning/Utopian Dreaming: Le Corbusier's Chandigarh Today’, Utopian Studies, 13.1 (2022), pp. 69-93

[103] Historical background, Chandigarh, The official website of the Chandigarh Administration (no date) [accessed 09/11/2025]

[104] Nihal Perera, ‘Contesting visions: hybridity, liminality and authorship of the Chandigarh plan’, Planning Perspectives, Routledge, 19.2 (2004), pp. 175-199.

[105] Nihal Perera, ‘Contesting visions: hybridity, liminality and authorship of the Chandigarh plan’, Planning Perspectives, Routledge, 19.2 (2004), pp. 175-199.

[106] Nihal Perera, ‘Contesting visions: hybridity, liminality and authorship of the Chandigarh plan’, Planning Perspectives, Routledge, 19.2 (2004), pp. 175-199.

[107] Architectuul, 'City of Chandigarh', Architectuul [accessed 09/11/2025]

[108] Bhoomika Ghale, Kshama Gupta and Arijit Roy, ‘Exploring the impact of urban planning on access to hierarchical green spaces: A comparative study between planned and unplanned cities’, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 112 (2025), pp. 1-15.

[109] Manish Chalana, ‘Chandigarh: City and Periphery’, Journal of Planning History, 14 (2014), pp. 62-84.

[110]  Andreea Cutieru, ‘Modernist Chandigarh Through the Lens of Roberto Conte’, ArchDaily, 14 March 2020 [accessed 09/11/2025]

[111] Jason Sayer, ‘City of Chandigarh, India by Le Corbusier’, Architecture Today, 2025 [accessed 22/10/2025]

[112] Jason Sayer, ‘City of Chandigarh, India by Le Corbusier’, Architecture Today, 2025 [accessed 22/10/2025]

[113] Manish Chalana, ‘Chandigarh: City and Periphery,’ Journal of Planning History, 14, (2014), pp. 62-84.

[114] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[115] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[116] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[117] Tara Singla and Tej Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’, Journal of Transport & Health, 44, (2025), p. 5.

[118] Tara Singla and Tej Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’, Journal of Transport & Health, 44, (2025), p. 5.

[119] Tara Singla and Tej Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’, Journal of Transport & Health, 44, (2025), p. 5.

[120] Thejaswini Jagannath, ‘Public Space in Smart Cities: A Case Study of Chandigarh, India.’ Smart City Concept: 22. IGLUS Quarterly, 4.1 (2018), pp. 22-25

[121] Tara Singla and Tej Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’, Journal of Transport & Health, 44, (2025), p. 5.

[122] Nitin Jain, 'More Vehicles Than People in Chandigarh, Highest Density in Country', The Tribune, 30 June 2025 [accessed 09/11/2025]

[123] Juan Andres Rodríguez-Lora, Ana Rosado and Daniel Navas-Carrillo, ‘Le Corbusier’s urban planning as a cultural legacy: An approach to the case of Chandigarh’, Designs, (2021) pp. 1-23.

[124] Bhoomika Ghale, Kshama Gupta and Arijit Roy, ‘Exploring the impact of urban planning on access to hierarchical green spaces: A comparative study between planned and unplanned cities’, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 112 (2025), pp. 1-15.

[125] Bhoomika Ghale, Kshama Gupta and Arijit Roy, ‘Exploring the impact of urban planning on access to hierarchical green spaces: A comparative study between planned and unplanned cities’, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 112 (2025), pp. 1-15.

[126] Hillary Victor, 'With 9 percent Growth Since 2017, Half of Chandigarh Area Now Under Green Cover', Hindustan Times, 12 March 2024 [accessed  09/11/2025].

[127] Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's early housing and neighbourhood planning in Sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives, (2012), p. 3.

[128] Rosemary Wakeman, ‘Practicing Utopia: The Intellectual History of the New Town Movement’, University of Chicago Press (2016), p. 129.

[129] Tara Singla and Tej Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’, Journal of Transport & Health, 44, (2025), p. 5.

[130] Tara Singla and Tej Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’, Journal of Transport & Health, 44, (2025), p. 5.

[131] Vinayk Bharne, ‘Le Corbusier’s Ruin: The Changing Face of Chandigarh’s Capitol’, Journal of Architectural Education (2011) p. 99.

[132] Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's early housing and neighbourhood planning in Sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives, (2012), p. 3.

[133] Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's early housing and neighbourhood planning in Sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives, (2012), p. 3.

[134] Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's early housing and neighbourhood planning in Sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives, (2012), p. 3.

[135] Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's early housing and neighbourhood planning in Sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives, (2012), p. 3.

[136] Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew's early housing and neighbourhood planning in Sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives, (2012), p. 3.

[137] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[138] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[139] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[140] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[141] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[142] Manish Chalana and Tyler S. Sprague, ‘Beyond Le Corbusier and the modernist city: reframing Chandigarh's ‘World Heritage’ legacy’, Planning Perspectives, (2012) p. 215.

[143] Chalana and Sprague, ‘Beyond Le Corbusier and the modernist city: reframing Chandigarh's ‘World Heritage’ legacy’.

[144] Manish Chalana and Tyler S. Sprague, ‘Beyond Le Corbusier and the modernist city: reframing Chandigarh's ‘World Heritage’ legacy’, Planning Perspectives, (2012) p. 215.

[145] Niyati Jigyasu, ‘Re-Planning ‘Planned’ Public Spaces: The Neigbourhood Market of Sector 15 in Chandigarh’, Creative Space, 2.1 (2014) p. 106

[146] Nitin Jain, 'More Vehicles Than People in Chandigarh, Highest Density in Country', The Tribune, 30 June 2025 [accessed 09/11/2025]

[147] Bhoomika Ghale, Kshama Gupta and Arijit Roy, ‘Exploring the impact of urban planning on access to hierarchical green spaces: A comparative study between planned and unplanned cities’, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 112 (2025), pp. 1-15.

[148] Hillary Victor, 'With 9 percent Growth Since 2017, Half of Chandigarh Area Now Under Green Cover', Hindustan Times, 12 March 2024 [accessed  09/11/2025].

[149] Robert Steuteville, ‘New towns are important part of New Urbanism’, Public Square A CNU Journal, 17 March 2025 < > [accessed 08/11/2025]

[150] Robert Steuteville, Ten ways to build small-scale urbanism. Public Square A CNU Journal, 1 August 2022 < > [accessed 08/11/2025]

[151]  Daybreak, South Jordan, Utah, Smart growth for Utah, Design Workshop, 2025  [accessed 08/11/2025]

[152] Robert Steuteville, ‘New towns are important part of New Urbanism’, Public Square A CNU Journal, 17 March 2025 < > [accessed 08/11/2025]

[153] Robert B. Stevens and Barbara B. Brown, ‘Walkable new urban LEED_Neighborhood-Development (LEED-ND) community design and children's physical activity: selection, environmental, or catalyst effects?’ International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8.139 (2011), pp. 1-10.

[154] Robert Steuteville, ‘New towns are important part of New Urbanism’, Public Square A CNU Journal, 17 March 2025 [accessed 08/11/2025]

[155] Roger Hodges, ‘Daybreak Community Masterplan, South Jordan, Utah’ [accessed 09/11/2025]

[156] Urban Land Institute, ‘ULI Case Studies, Daybreak: UT.’, Urban Land Institute.  37.24. Case Number: C037024, 2015 [accessed 29/08/2025]

[157] Urban Land Institute, ‘ULI Case Studies, Daybreak: UT.’, Urban Land Institute.  37.24. Case Number: C037024, 2015 [accessed 29/08/2025]

[158] Utah Senate, ‘Affordable Housing’, 2024 [accessed 29/08/2025]

[159] TerraineLife, ‘Elevating from the ground up’, 2025 [accessed 29/08/2025]

[160] Daniel Parolek, Missing Middle Housing: Thinking Big and Building Small to Respond to Today’s Housing Crisis (Island Press, 2020)

[161] Robert Steuteville, ‘An innovative missing middle design’, Public Square A CNU Journal, 25 April 2018  [accessed 08/11/2025]

[162] Robert Steuteville, ‘New towns are important part of New Urbanism’, Public Square A CNU Journal, 17 March 2025 [accessed 08/11/2025]

[163] Clovis Ultramari, Roberto C.E. de Oliveira da Silva and Gisela Meister, ‘Idealizing Brazilian cities: their master plans from 1960 through 2015’, Cities, 83 (2018), pp. 186-192.

[164] Roberto Rocco, Luciana Royer and Fábio Mariz Gonçalves, ‘Characterisation of spatial planning in Brazil: the right to the city in theory and practice’, Planning Practice and Research, 34.4 (2019), pp. 419-437.

[165] Prefeitura de Curitiba, ‘IPPUC, THE INSTITUTE THAT PLANS AND MAKES HAPPEN’, [accessed 08/11/2025]

[166] Joseli Macedo, ‘Planning a sustainable city: the making of Curitiba, Brazil’, Journal of Planning History 12.4 (2013), pp. 334-353.

[167] Jean Mercier, Mario Carrier, Fábio Duarte and Fanny Tremblay-Racicot, ‘Policy tools for sustainable transport in three cities of the Americas: Seattle, Montreal and Curitiba’, Transport Policy, 50 (2016), pp. 95-105.

[168] Maria Elena Zingoni De Baro, ‘A new agenda for cities’, in Regenerating Cities: Reviving Places and Planet. (Springer, 2022), pp. 221-227.

[169] Maria Elena Zingoni De Baro, ‘A new agenda for cities’, in Regenerating Cities: Reviving Places and Planet. (Springer, 2022), pp. 221-227.

[170] Joseli Macedo, ‘City profile: Curitiba’, Cities, 21.6 (2004), pp. 537-549,

[171] International Association of Horticultural Producers, ‘Curitiba, Brazil: Curitiba’s Urban Agriculture’, 2025 [accessed 09/11/2025]

[172] Viable Alternative, Curitiba City, ‘A Model In Sustainable Urban Planning’ [accessed 09/11/2025]

[173] Hellem de Freitas Miranda and Antônio Nélson Rodrigues da Silva, ‘Benchmarking sustainable urban mobility: the case of Curitiba, Brazil’, Transport Policy, 21 (2012), pp. 141-151.

[174] Clara Irazábal, City making and urban governance in the Americas: Curitiba and Portland (Ashgate, 2017).

[175] Jacob Torfing, ‘Rethinking path-dependence in public policy research’, Critical Policy Studies, 3.1 (2009), pp.70-83.

[176] Maria Elena Zingoni De Baro, ‘A new agenda for cities’, in Regenerating Cities: Reviving Places and Planet. (Springer, 2022), pp. 221-227.

[177] Jaime Lerner, Acupuntura urbana (Editora Record, 2003).

[178] Joseli Macedo, ‘City profile: Curitiba’, Cities, 21.6 (2004), pp. 537-549,

[179] Maria Elena Zingoni De Baro, ‘A new agenda for cities’, in Regenerating Cities: Reviving Places and Planet. (Springer, 2022), pp. 221-227.

[180] Katy Lock and Hugh Ellis, New Towns: The Rise, Fall and Rebirth (RIBA Publishing, 2020).

[181] Joseli Macedo, ‘Planning a sustainable city: the making of Curitiba, Brazil’, Journal of Planning History 12.4 (2013), pp. 334-353.

[182] Cassio Taniguchi, ‘Transport and urban planning in Curitiba’, disP: The Planning Review, 37.147 (2001), pp. 14-19.

[183] Luke Antoniou, “Speak Curitiba includes in-person meetings at the Streets of Citizenship and an online platform where everyone can submit their priorities”, ‘Curitiba: how digital transformation and revitalisation go hand in hand’, Special Reports 17 May 2025 [accessed 08/11/2025]

[184] Singla and Karki, ‘Walkability in planned urban environments: Evaluating policy and planning gaps – A case study of Chandigarh’.

[185] Simin Davoudi and John Sturzaker, 'Urban form, policy packaging and sustainable urban metabolism', Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 120 (2017), pp. 55-64.

[186] DLE, ‘Smart Sustainable Solutions Together in Almere’ [accessed 08/11/2025]

[187] Cergy-Pontoise agglo, Rénovation de l’ensemble du réseau de chauffage urbain de Cergy-Pontoise, [accessed 08/11/2025]

[188] Carlos Moreno, The 15-Minute city: a solution to saving our time and our planet (John Wiley & Sons, 2024).

[189] Susan Parham, Food and Urbanism. The Convivial City and a Sustainable Future. (Bloomsbury, 2015)