Commons 

This concept applies to the resources that each individual can use for survival without having to pay for them.  Originally based on the rights villagers had to graze cattle on a common piece of land, the concept implies that common safety and equity for example, are more important than development, as development will only benefit a minority.  However, since no cost was imposed, people overused the resource and failed to preserve it, therefore conflicting with sustainability.  The ‘tragedy of the commons’ refers to the degradation of the resource due to the self-interest of a few who destroy or use more than their fair share of the common resource.  An example is the decline of fish populations due to the over-fishing of the oceans.

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Critical load 

This term is associated with both environmental capacity (see below) and pollution levels.

• Associated with environmental capacity, the critical load is the threshold above which the environmental system fails (also known as environmental limit).
• Associated with pollution levels, the critical load is an estimate of exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects do not occur to sensitive receptors.

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Demand management 

Historically, public policy (including planning) followed the ‘predict and provide’ model.  Demand management comprises the opposite approach i.e. ‘demand and provide.’  This can be achieved at two levels:-

• deterring consumption through pricing although this generally requires regulation strengthening e.g. fuel duty escalator; and
• specific targeting of those who place particular strain on specific infrastructure resources e.g. heavy users of electricity.  This often occurs at the local level with ‘micro-management’ and therefore land use planning has a role to play.

Transport is an example where demand management could be applied effectively.  Housing growth however, would be more complex due to social equity, individual and communal aspirations, and rights to privacy.

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Duty of Care 

This concept is used in law relating to negligence.  Essentially an individual must do everything reasonably practicable to prevent injury to others.  It is currently used in the following contexts:-

• to define the statutory responsibilities of those who produce, carry or dispose of waste;
• in respect of construction and demolition; and
• in relation to hazardous substances.

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Ecological Footprint 

This concept relates to resource consumption, and aims to estimate the area of land and water required to generate the resources that a population demands.  By calculating the ‘ecological footprint’ it can be seen if an individual or population are using more than their fair share of the world’s resources.  It can therefore be argued that the consequences of this greater use must fall elsewhere, namely:-

• taken from the past e.g. fossil fuels, non-replaceable scenery;
• conveyed to the future e.g. persistent pollutants; and/or
• transferred to or from elsewhere e.g. food imports, waste for treatment elsewhere.

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Environmental Capacity 

An area of land can be described as having a ‘carrying capacity’.  The carrying capacity represents the maximum population size that can be regularly sustained by that environment.  Other definitions that are related to human use of land include:-

• the number of people that can be satisfactorily accommodated on a piece of land given the capacity of the natural, built and social infrastructure; and
• the amount of land required to support a population given its level of consumption (see also Ecological footprint).

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Environmental Capital 

This concept presents the environment as assets so that they can be compared with financial assets to improve sustainable development.  Environmental (or natural) capital can be Critical (that which is irreplaceable e.g. ancient woodland), Constant (assets to retain if possible, although could be substituted), Tradable (assets which may be locally important but which could be sacrificed for a more important capital item).  On deciding the value of the environmental asset, emphasis is placed on its function in terms of its contribution to meeting the objectives of sustainability.

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Environmental Limit 

This concept is associated with environmental capacity.  The environmental limit is the threshold of the carrying capacity.  Beyond the environmental limit, irreversible damage could be caused to the health and productivity of the environment.  The environmental limit is also known as the environmental threshold. 

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Ethics 

The ethics associated with the environment can be broadly categorised as follows:

• Ecocentrism – is a philosophy that recognises the importance of a range of interacting processes that contributes to and Ecosphere or web of life as the source and support of all life. It advocates a holistic and eco-centric approach to government, industry, and individual as social actions must always be constrained by ecological limits.
• Technocentrism – this is the belief that human ingenuity can overcome all environmental constraints and that the environment imposes no limits.
• Biocentrism - this is the belief that humanity is not the centre of existence and that all forms of life have an inherent and equal right to existence. 
• Anthropocentrism – is a belief that hat human beings and human society are, or should be the central focus of existence and therefore have more rights than other organisms.
• Deep ecology – this is a recent philosophy that emphasises the intrinsic value of species, systems and processes within nature.  The philosophy promotes direct personal action to protect nature and improve the environment.

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Equality 

This is the concept that all persons or things under consideration are given the same treatment.  Intergenerational equality suggests that there is justice between the generations in terms of the consumption of natural resources.  It therefore suggests that no generation should consume resources in a way that would prejudice the chances of the subsequent generations from having a similar quality of life (also see the definition of Sustainable Development).

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Liability 

This is a way of implementing some of the main environmental principles; particularly the polluter pays principle (see below).  For liability to be effective polluters must be identifiable, the damage must be quantifiable and there must be a link between the polluter and the damage.  The concept of liability can not therefore be applied when dealing with pollution of a diffuse and widespread character e.g. climate change. 

Note: there are two types of liability:

1. Strict liability – this is more appropriate for damage resulting from hazardous activities.
2. Fault-based liability – this can be applied to damage to sensitive environments such as protected wildlife sites, by a non-hazardous activity.

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Polluter Pays Principle 

This principle is part of international environmental law where the polluting party takes responsibility and pays for the damage done to the environment rather than imposing the responsibility on society.    The principle extends to ensure the polluting party covers the imminent threat of damage occurring as well as the actual damage.  This principle forms a key part of the EU’s environment policy.

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Precautionary Principle 

This is a principle that enables environmental management to continue even in the absence of full scientific knowledge.  ‘In order to protect the environment, the precautionary principle shall be widely applied by states according to their capabilities.  Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation’ (UN, 1992). 

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Proximity Principle 

This principle aims for transport distances to be minimised between people and goods and is often associated with food miles (see also Local Self-Sufficiency).  The principle expresses the benefits of promoting a local ‘production-disposal loop’, therefore reducing environmental and economic costs.  The principle can also be applied to waste management and planning.

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Quality of Life Capital 

This concept and ‘Quality of Life Assessment’, aims to integrate environmental, social and economic benefits as part of any land use or management decision.  This policy is based on deciding what matters and why and aims to:-

1. Look at areas and features and consider the benefits they provide for human well-being.
2. Emphasise improvement of quality of life rather than acceptance of the status quo.
3. Value the commonplace as well as the unusual and rare.
4. Puts professional/expert judgements alongside the concerns of local people.

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Resource Efficiency 

This is an example of a ‘technocentric’ concept involving the increase in productivity of a resource i.e. producing the same product or service but using smaller amounts of the resource.  Progress in this area relies on public intervention, through regulating markets, imposing standards and encouraging innovation. It is important that in achieving increased recourse efficiency detrimental effects are not felt elsewhere or that it leads to increased consumption overall.  ‘Factor Four’ is an initiative aiming to quadruple efficiency adopted by the UK Government. 

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Self-sufficiency 

This is the concept of being in a state where outside aid, support or intervention for survival is not required.  This concept can be applied at a variety of scales from local to global as follows:

• Local self-sufficiency – at its simplest, this concept is about reducing food-miles (the distance travelled by food from its origin to its end consumption) by meeting people’s needs locally.
• Regional self-sufficiency – an example within the UK includes the disposal of waste.  Regional self-sufficiency is used as a concept to promote the treatment and disposal of waste in the region that it is produced.
• National self-sufficiency - self-sufficiency of a country implies that that country produces everything needed with very little imported.  However, very few countries remain self-sufficient.

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Sustainable Development 

This concept was defined in the Brundtland Report, 1987 as “meeting the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”  However, there are many interpretations of this definition reflecting different political philosophies or objectives.  The UK government has four main objectives in its strategy for sustainable development as listed below:

1. Social progress that recognises the needs of everyone.
2. Effective protection of the environment.
3. Prudent use of natural resources.
4. Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment.

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References

United Nations, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 1992.

United Nations Environmental Program and World Wide Fund for Nature, Living Planet Report, 2000.

World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, OUP, Oxford, 1987 – The Brundtland Report.

Author:

Andrew Burns

Publisher:

The Royal Town Planning Institute

Date:

16-May-07

Categories:

Networks & Associations 

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